It’s no secret that children are expensive, but where you raise them can add thousands to your annual budget.

The average annual cost of raising a child in the 100 most populous U.S. metropolitan areas is $22,989, although these costs can vary widely from city to city, according to an analysis by Creditnews Research.

In San Francisco, the annual cost of raising a child is $37,340, the highest of any city, compared to just $14,661 in Jackson, Mississippi, a difference of nearly $23,000.

The average cost of raising a child to age 18 is $413,810 across all 100 cities, the study says.

The estimates are based on the average additional costs that two working parents would pay in a given year, according to data from the Department of Labor. For one child, these expenses include child care, food, housing, health care, transportation and other necessities.

Not surprisingly, the cities with the highest child-related costs also have the highest housing costs in the country. According to the study, housing is the largest item in a typical family’s household budget.

This suggests that the spillover effect of high housing costs can affect whether city dwellers can afford to raise a family. In many cities, the annual cost of raising a child is just under half the current median U.S. household income of $79,090, according to Motio Research.

Here’s a look at the 10 metropolitan areas with the least financial opportunities for raising children, according to Creditnews Research.

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 37,340 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 672,120 USD

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 37,305 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 671,490 USD

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 35,236 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 634,242 USD

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 33,267 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: $598,800

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 32,763 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 589,728 USD

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 32,115 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 578,070 USD

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 31,615 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 569,064 USD

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 31,459 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 566,268 USD

• Average annual cost of raising a child: 31,122 USD
• Total costs for raising a child up to the age of 18: 560,190 USD